Climate Change

Climate change has been recognized as a pressing environmental and political challenge for more than thirty years. [1] In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted with the mission to coordinate and support the global response to climate change.[2] Since then,  States parties to the convention must gather annually in the Conference of the Parties (COP) to discuss the implementation of the Convention and other legal instruments adopted within the UNFCCC framework.

Despite undeniable scientific recognition of the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and numerous climate change agreements, the world has been failing to meet the targets and goals set by those agreements. In 2024, new studies showed that global warming has already exceeded the 1.5°C threshold.[3] According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), there is a 70% chance that the 5-year average warming for 2025-2029 will be higher than 1.5 °C, increasing climate risks and impacts on societies, economies and the environment.[4] Harmful effects on the ocean include sea-level rise, ocean warming, deoxygenation, acidification and biodiversity loss.[5]

At the same time, the ocean also plays a vital role in the global mitigation of climate change by uptaking excess heat and anthropogenic CO₂ emissions.   Since 1850, the global ocean has absorbed approximately 26% of total anthropogenic emissions.[6] Yet the potential of marine ecosystems to provide these functions declines as they are degraded by warming, pollution, overexploitation, and habitat destruction. Despite this, international climate discussions have failed to give the ocean its relevant space in the climate agenda.

The Evolution of the Ocean–Climate Agenda within the UNFCCC

The ocean was only mentioned once in the text of the Convention and once in the preamble of the Paris Agreement.[7] In the UNFCCC, parties recognized the importance of marine ecosystems as reservoirs of greenhouse gases and the necessity to promote the sustainable management and conservation of these ecosystems. However, for years the COPs neglected to include the ocean as a central component of the climate system.

In 2015, on COP21, this scenario began to change. Alongside the Paris Agreement, the “Because the Ocean” Declaration pushed for ocean-climate alignment andcalled on the IPCC to write a special report on the ocean. [8] These events paved the way for the formal inclusion of the ocean-climate nexus in the international negotiations.

The publication of the IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in 2019 was considered a landmark on the recognition of the ocean-climate nexus, offering the first comprehensive assessment of how climate change is reshaping marine and polar systems. Its findings landed just ahead of COP25 in Madrid, a conference that was dedicated to the ocean’s role in climate change and became known as the “Blue COP”.[9] 

For the first time, Parties formally acknowledged the need to strengthen the understanding of ocean and climate change under the UNFCCC. Additionally, the conference mandated the first “Ocean and Climate Change Dialogue”, an event to enhance ocean-related climate action across the UNFCCC framework.[10]

At COP26, in 2021, the Glasgow Climate Pact invited the UNFCCC bodies and work programmes to include ocean-based action into their workplans and to report on it within its established reporting mechanisms.[11] COP27 went further by encouraging countries to incorporate ocean-based initiatives directly into their national climate goals, including their nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and long-term strategies.[12]^,[13]

Parties also agreed to establish annual Ocean and Climate Change Dialogues, turning them into a recurring platform designed to build knowledge and strengthen coordinated ocean-climate action. The Dialogues function as technical and scientific events rather than formal negotiations, limiting their influence on binding outcomes.[14]

COP29 in Baku was deemed to be the Finance COP, where countries were to advance on a new climate finance goal and implementation mechanisms. However, the role of the ocean within these finance structures remained undefined. Despite the Paris Agreement’s 2023 Global Stocktake[15] calling for stronger ocean-based climate action, the ocean was a low priority on the agenda of the COP.

The final outcome established the Baku Finance Goal: to deliver at least USD 300 billion annually for developing countries by 2035, while calling on all countries to enable scaling up of financing to at least USD 1.3 trillion per year by 2035.[16] There is a huge gap between climate finance commitment and actual needs, raising concerns for the most vulnerable countries and communities facing the urgent threats from climate change on ocean and on land.  

Recent developments in international law have reinforced these concerns. Since the end of 2024, both the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea and the International Court of Justice have issued advisory opinions clarifying that states have legal responsibilities for their greenhouse gas emissions and their impacts, including on the marine environment.[17]^,[18] These opinions confirm that failing to reduce emissions can be considered a breach of international obligations and pressures states to align domestic policies with their global climate commitments.

COP30 in Belém: Expectations

After the disappointing outcome of COP29, the path from Baku to Belém was defined by high expectations. COP30, held from 10 to 21 November 2025 in Belém, Brazil, was framed by the Brazilian presidency as “the COP of implementation”.[19] Ten years after the adoption of the Paris Agreement, countries were expected to focus on promoting mechanisms for implementation of its commitments, particularly on climate finance and the long-delayed phase-out of fossil fuels. Amidst all this, the ocean added another layer of expectations.

Earlier this year, in the Third UN Ocean Conference (UNOC3), Brazil and France launched the Blue NDC Challenge.[20] The initiative called on countries to integrate ocean-based initiatives into their NDCs and national climate strategies. By urging countries to place the ocean at the center of their climate planning, the NDC Challenge set the scene for COP30 to advance ocean-climate integration and advocate for the inclusion of ocean finance in upcoming decisions.

Following UNOC3[21], the Nice Ocean Action Plan[22], the Blue NDC Challenge[23], and the success of the Agreement on Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ Agreement)[24], world leaders and civil society again had the opportunity to integrate ocean solutions into climate ambition and biodiversity goals. The moment demanded that the climate, ocean, and biodiversity agendas stop evolving through separate ways and instead be treated as interconnected components of the same global challenge. Coordination between these environmental frameworks would allow for more efficient interventions and strategic use of finance mechanisms to address the common systemic drivers of the planetary crisis.

COP30 in Belém: Contradictions

Preparations for the COP were marked by reports of Amazon deforestation linked to infrastructure construction[25], alongside new oil exploration licenses in the Amazon Basin. [26] These actions raised criticism from local and Indigenous populations and the scientific community. [27]^,[28],[29] By authorizing new fossil exploration in the Amazon basin, Brazil contradicts its own climate discourse[30], undermines its energy-transition commitments, and jeopardizes its standing as a climate leader.[31] Additionally, multiple sectors associated with environmental degradation and high greenhouse gas emissions are sponsoring and participating in the COP.[32]

These events reflect a broader pattern not unique to Brazil: many states continue to present strong climate narratives internationally while domestic practices undermine environmental protection. It also raises important questions about the effectiveness of the current COP model. How can international climate negotiations achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement when the process repeatedly reproduces patterns of exclusion, allows negotiators closely tied to major emitting sectors, and marginalizes the communities most affected by climate impacts?

Outcomes

Brazil’s COP30 presidency was involved in several initiatives aiming to integrate the ocean into the climate agenda, including the Blue Package[33], the Blue NDC Implementation Taskforce [34] and the appointment of a Special Envoy for the Oceans.[35]  The Blue Package developed a cross-sectoral plan to accelerate ocean-based climate solutions by 2028. The strategy is based on the priority tipping points and targets identified by the Ocean Breakthroughs.[36]

In addition, the Blue NDC Implementation Taskforce intends to “integrate oceans into a global mechanism that accelerates the adoption of marine solutions in national climate plans.”[37] The goal is to transform the Blue NDC challenge from a political promise into a concrete framework.

Regarding the status of NDCs, a new report highlighted that 61 out of 66 newly submitted NDCs (92%) included at least one ocean-related measure.[38] However, the sectors with highest potential for reducing emissions are still neglected in the national plans, including phasing out offshore oil and gas, expanding offshore renewables, and decarbonizing shipping and aquatic foods industries. To make matters worse, several national strategies only briefly mentioned the ocean and lacked a proper ocean agenda to help achieve their climate goals.

Beyond the presidency’s strategies, other recurrent initiatives that support the ocean-climate nexus continued their mission at COP30. The Ocean pavilion brought together multiple stakeholders from scientists to civil society. Its main objective was to advocate for the ocean within the climate agenda through three main areas: human ocean, planet ocean and the future ocean.[39]  The Pavilion was also responsible for the Belém Ocean Declaration[40], a call for UNFCCC negotiators to integrate ocean action into the Global Stocktake outcomes and into the next round of NDCs.

Additionally, the 2025 Ocean and Climate Change Dialogue[41] focused on three priority areas: ocean-based measures in NDCs, the role of the ocean under the Global Goal on Adaptation, and ocean-climate-biodiversity synergies. Key messages from the dialogue include: the recognition of the potential of ocean-based solutions for mitigation and adaptation of climate change; the role of the UN Ocean Conferences and the entry into force of the BBNJ agreement as opportunities to promote integration across climate, biodiversity and the ocean agendas; and the necessity to advance access to blue finance.

Despite the growing number of initiatives aimed at promoting the inclusion of the ocean into the official climate change agenda, it still lacked a formal space within the UNFCCC structure and the COP negotiation table. The final draft of COP30, the Global Mutirão[42], recognized the urgent need to address the “interlinked global crisis of climate change, biodiversity loss, and land and ocean degradation” and the “importance of protecting, conserving, restoring and sustainably using and managing” marine ecosystems for climate action. Nevertheless, it did not establish dedicated targets or references to ocean-related climate finance. Once more the marine environment remained part of parallel discussions rather than integrated into the core negotiating mechanisms of the conference.

Regarding finance implementation, the decision reaffirmed last year’s commitments to enable the scaling up of financing, while also calling for tripling of adaptation finance by 2035.  Even if none of these decisions succeeded at explicitly including the ocean or setting goals for ocean finance, the adoption of the Belém Adaptation Indicators provided a promising framework for assessing and keeping track of global adaptation response towards climate resilience.[43] 

The decision supports the disaggregation of indicators by different categories, including by ecosystem, which explicitly mentions marine and coastal ecosystems. Despite not being mandatory, the indicators may represent a meaningful step towards enhancing marine and coastal resilience. Therefore, ocean-based measures could benefit from the new set goal for financing adaptation.

Finally, once again the phaseout of fossil fuels was left out of the final text. Yet, the COP30 presidency committed itself to develop a roadmap on transitioning away from fossil fuels to present at the next COP. The strategy will be developed outside of the COP official structure by voluntary countries and will be guided by Colombia and the Netherlands through an International Conference to take place on 2026. [44]

Conclusion  

Despite the growing visibility of ocean–climate initiatives, COP30 ultimately failed to translate it into the official negotiation agenda or the final decision text, leaving the ocean once again outside of the UNFCCC commitments. This absence reinforces the urgent need to integrate climate, ocean and biodiversity frameworks, whose fragmentation continues to undermine coherent policy action and weaken the effectiveness of national and international strategies. For any meaningful and durable integration of the ocean into global climate governance, it is essential that future COPs effectively respond to these challenges.

Full implementation of ocean-based solutions could reduce the emissions gap by up to 35 percent on a 1.5°C pathway, and stopping ecosystem degradation is crucial to avoid further release of GHG emissions from coastal and marine ecosystems. [45] Given the potential of the ocean to contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation, future climate decisions must finally establish binding targets and finance mechanisms to ensure the global achievement of collective climate goals.

This includes setting financial targets for ocean-based solutions, especially for small islands states, indigenous people and local communities; strengthening cooperation between the UNFCCC, the biodiversity conventions and the BBNJ agreement to align ocean, climate and biodiversity agendas; pushing beyond the resistance of the fossil fuel industry and finally adopting a real plan for the phasing-out of fossil fuels. The ocean can no longer stay at the margins of climate negotiations; integrating it into binding commitments is no longer a choice if the world hopes to stop the climate change crisis before destabilizing the climate beyond the point of no return.

[1] United Nations General Assembly. Protection of Global Climate for Present and Future Generations of Mankind. Resolution 43/53, adopted December 6, 1988. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/54234?v=pdf.

[2] United Nations. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. New York: United Nations, 1992.https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf.

[3] M. T. McCulloch, A. Winter, C. E. Sherman, et al. “300 Years of Sclerosponge Thermometry Shows Global Warming Has Exceeded 1.5 °C.” Nature Climate Change 14 (2024): 171–177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-023-01919-7.

[4] World Meteorological Organization. WMO Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update (2025-2029). Geneva: WMO, 2025. https://wmo.int/publication-series/wmo-global-annual-decadal-climate-update-2025-2029.

[5] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. Geneva: IPCC, 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/.

[6] Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O’Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Judith Hauck, Peter Landschützer, et al. “Global Carbon Budget 2024.” Earth System Science Data 17 (2025): 965–1039. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-965-2025.

[7] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Paris Agreement. FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, adopted December 12, 2015, Preamble. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf.

[8] Because the Ocean Initiative. Because the Ocean Declaration. Paris, 2015. https://fondationtaraocean.org/app/uploads/2021/11/3eme-declaration-becausetheocean102021.pdf.

[9] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Joint Presidency Ocean Event Information Note. COP 25 Presidency & COP 26 Incoming Presidency, 2020. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Joint%20Presidency%20Ocean%20Event%20information%20note.pdf.

[10] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Report of the Conference of the Parties on Its Twenty-Fifth Session, Held in Madrid from 2 to 15 December 2019. Addendum: Part Two, Action Taken by the Conference of the Parties at Its Twenty-Fifth Session. Decision 1/CP.25: Chile Madrid Time for Action, paras. 30–31. FCCC/CP/2019/13/Add.1. Bonn: UNFCCC, 2019. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cp2019_13a01E.pdf.

[11] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Report of the Conference of the Parties on Its Twenty-Sixth Session, Held in Glasgow from 31 October to 13 November 2021. Addendum: Part Two, Action Taken by the Conference of the Parties at Its Twenty-Sixth Session. Decision 1/CP.26, para. 60. FCCC/CP/2021/12/Add.1. Bonn: UNFCCC, 2021. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cp2021_12_add1E.pdf.

[12] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Report of the Conference of the Parties on Its Twenty-Seventh Session, Held in Sharm el-Sheikh from 6 to 20 November 2022. Addendum: Part Two, Action Taken by the Conference of the Parties at Its Twenty-Seventh Session. Decision 1/CP.27, para. 50. FCCC/CP/2022/10/Add.1. Bonn: UNFCCC, 2022. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cp2022_10a01_E.pdf. 

[13] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Report of the Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement on Its Fourth Session, Held in Sharm el-Sheikh from 6 to 20 November 2022. Addendum: Part Two, Action Taken by the Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement at Its Fourth Session. Decision 1/CMA.4, para. 79. FCCC/PA/CMA/2022/10/Add.1. Bonn: UNFCCC, 2022. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2022_10_a01E.pdf.

[14] Ocean & Climate Platform and Ocean Risk and Resilience Action Alliance. Unpacking Ocean Finance for Climate Action: A Roadmap for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 2024, 1–22. https://ocean-climate.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/UNPACKING-OCEAN-FINANCE-FOR-CLIMATE-ACTION-A-ROADMAP-FOR-THE-UNITED-NATIONS-FRAMEWORK-CONVENTION-ON-CLIMATE-CHANGE-November-2024.pdf.

[15] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Report of the Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement on Its Fifth Session, Held in the United Arab Emirates from 30 November to 13 December 2023. Addendum: Part Two, Action Taken by the Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement at Its Fifth Session. Decision 1/CMA.5: Outcome of the First Global Stocktake. FCCC/PA/CMA/2023/10/Add.1. Bonn: UNFCCC, 2023. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/1_CMA.5.pdf.

[16] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Report of the Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement on Its Sixth Session, Held in Baku from 11 to 24 November 2024. Addendum: Part Two, Action Taken by the Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement at Its Sixth Session. Decision 1/CMA.6: New Collective Quantified Goal on Climate Finance, paras. 7–8. Bonn: UNFCCC, 2024. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2024_17a01E.pdf.

[17] International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), Request for an Advisory Opinion Submitted by the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law (Request for Advisory Opinion), Advisory Opinion, 21 May 2024.

[18] International Court of Justice (ICJ), Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change, Advisory Opinion, General List No. 187, 23 July 2025, The Hague, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/187/187-20250723-adv-01-00-en.pdf.

[19]  Brazilian Presidency of COP30. “Eighth Letter from the Presidency.” 23 October 2025. Belém. https://cop30.br/en/brazilian-presidency/letters-from-the-presidency/eighth-letter-from-the-presidency.

[20] United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3). “Making Waves from Paris to Belém: Accelerating Ocean-Climate Action.” Side event, Nice, France, 12 June 2025. Accessed 14 November 2025. https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/2025-07/ID12_Making%20Waves%20from%20Paris%20to%20Bel%C3%A9m_%20Accelerating%20Ocean-Climate%20Action.pdf#:~:text=Celebrating%20the%2010th%20anniversary%20of%20the%20UNFCCC%20Paris,Nationally%20Determined%20Contributions%20%28NDCs%29%20by%20COP30%20in%20Bel%C3%A9m.

[21] Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3). “Home – Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3) 9–13 June 2025 | Nice, France.” France & Costa Rica. Accessed 14 November 2025. https://www.unocnice2025.org/en/home/.

[22] United Nations. 2025 United Nations Conference to Support the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14: Conserve and Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources for Sustainable Development, Nice, France, 9–13 June 2025. Our ocean, our future: United for urgent action. A/CONF.230/2025/L.1, 4 June 2025. https://docs.un.org/en/A/CONF.230/2025/L.1.

[23] Ocean Breakthroughs. “Blue NDC Challenge.” Accessed 14 November 2025. https://ocean-breakthroughs.org/blue-ndc-challenge/.

[24] United Nations. Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ Agreement). Adopted 19 June 2023, not yet in force. A/CONF.232/2023/4.

[25] World Animal Protection. “Belém’s Climate Paradox: Road for COP30 Pierces Through the Heart of Amazon.” CVFV20.org, 21 March 2025. https://cvfv20.org/belems-climate-paradox-road-for-cop30-pierces-through-the-heart-of-amazon/. Accessed 9 November 2025.

[26] Observatório do Clima. “Lula Jeopardizes Own Leadership at COP30 in Dash for Oil.” 13 February 2025. https://www.oc.eco.br/en/lula-jeopardizes-own-leadership-at-cop30-in-dash-for-oil/. Accessed 14 November 2025.

[27] Mongabay. “Environmental Groups Slam Amazon Oil Drilling Approval Ahead of COP30.” Mongabay Environmental News, 21 October 2025. https://news.mongabay.com/short-article/2025/10/environmental-groups-slam-amazon-oil-drilling-approval-ahead-of-cop30/. Accessed 15 November 2025.

[28] Globo. “Licença do Ibama para Foz do Amazonas provoca reações” [Ibama license for the Amazon River mouth triggers reactions]. G1, 20 October 2025. https://www.g1.globo.com/meio-ambiente/noticia/2025/10/20/licenca-do-ibama-foz-do-amazonas-reacoes.ghtml. Accessed 14 November 2025.

[29] Reuters. “Protestors Force Their Way Into COP30 Venue, Clash With Security.” Reuters Sustainability, 11 November 2025. https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/cop/protestors-force-their-way-into-cop30-venue-clash-with-security-2025-11-11/. Accessed 15 November 2025.

[30] Wenzel, Fernanda. “Brazil Calls for Ambition at COP but Struggles over Its Own Climate Policy.” Mongabay, 8 November 2024. https://news.mongabay.com/2024/11/brazil-calls-for-ambition-at-cop-but-struggles-over-its-own-climate-policy/. Accessed 20 November 2025.

[31] Observatório do Clima. “Lula Jeopardizes Own Leadership at COP30 in Dash for Oil.” 13 February 2025. https://www.oc.eco.br/en/lula-jeopardizes-own-leadership-at-cop30-in-dash-for-oil/. Accessed 20 November 2025.

[32] Kick Big Polluters Out. “Release – Kick-Out The Suits @ COP30: Fossil Fuel Lobbyists Flood COP30 Climate Talks in Brazil, with Largest Ever Attendance Share.” Belém: Kick Big Polluters Out, 14 November 2025.https://kickbigpollutersout.org/Release-Kick-Out-The-Suits-COP30. Accessed 16 November 2025.

[33] Brazilian Ministry of Environment and Climate Change. Plan to Accelerate Ocean-Based Climate Solutions: A Blue Package. Belém: UNFCCC, 24 October 2025. https://climateaction.unfccc.int/assets/documents/18_.pdf

[34] Ferreira, Rafaela. “Brazil and France Announce Ocean Task Force as New Countries Join Global Ocean Effort.” COP30 Brasil Amazônia, 18 November 2025. Accessed November 20, 2025.  https://cop30.br/en/news-about-cop30/brazil-and-france-announce-ocean-task-force-as-new-countries-join-global-ocean-effort

[35] Marques, Laura, and Maíra Sardinha. “COP30 Envoy: A Healthy Ocean Is Key to Fighting the Climate Crisis.” COP30 Brasil Amazônia, November 17, 2025. Accessed November 20, 2025. https://cop30.br/en/news-about-cop30/cop30-envoy-a-healthy-ocean-is-key-to-fighting-the-climate-crisis

[36] Ocean Breakthroughs. “The Ocean Breakthroughs: Five Ocean Sectors, One Shared Goal.” Accessed 14 November 2025. https://ocean-breakthroughs.org/

[37] Ferreira, “Brazil and France Announce Ocean Task Force.”

[38] Khan, Micheline, Jonathan Baines, Marine Lecerf, Carolyn Savoldelli, Rachel Thoms, Daniel Hubbell, Sarah Hertel, Xuechan Ma, Anna-Marie Laura, Shamini Selvaratnam, Luz Gil, and Tarûb Bahri. The State of Ocean-Based Climate Action in 2025 Nationally Determined Contributions: A Preliminary Update. Working Paper. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 18 November 2025. https://doi.org/10.46830/wriwp.25.00004

[39] Ocean Pavilion at COP30. “COP30 Ocean Programming Themes.” Accessed 20 November 2025. https://oceanpavilion-cop.org/cop30-ocean-programming-themes/

[40] Ocean Pavilion at COP30. “Belém Ocean Declaration.” Accessed 20 November 2025. https://oceanpavilion-cop.org/belem-ocean-declaration/.

[41] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Informal Summary Report of the Ocean and Climate Change Dialogue 2025. Bonn, Germany: UNFCCC, 30 September 2025. https://unfccc.int/documents/650163

[42] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA). Draft decision -/CMA.7: Global Mutirão: Uniting humanity in a global mobilization against climate change. FCCC/PA/CMA/2025/L.24, 22 November 2025. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2025_L24_adv.pdf

[43] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA). Draft decision -/CMA.7: Global goal on adaptation. FCCC/PA/CMA/2025/L.25, 22 November 2025. https://unfccc.int/documents/653890

[44] Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty Initiative. “First International Conference on the Phase-Out of Fossil Fuels.” November 21 2025. https://fossilfueltreaty.org/first-international-conference

[45] Höegh-Guldberg, Ove, Eliza Northrop, et al. The Ocean as a Solution to Climate Change: Updated Opportunities for Action. Special Report. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute, 2023. https://oceanpanel.org/publication/ocean-solutions-to-climate-change/